Instructional Design Theory

Reigeluth, C. M., & Carr-Chellman, A. A. (Eds.). (2009). Instructional-design theories and models (Vol. 3). New York: Routledge.

Six major kinds of instructional design theory (p. 8-9)

1. Instructional-event design theory: what the instruction should be like
   
2. Instructional-analysis design theory: what the process of gathering information for making decisions about instruction should be like
3. Instructional-planning design theory: what the process of creating the instructional plans should be like
4. Instructional-building design theory: what the process of creating the instructional resources should be like
5. Instructional-implementation design theory: what the process of preparing for implementation of the instruction should be like
6. Instructional-evaluation design theory: what the process for evaluating the instruction should be like

Gibbons, A. S., & Rogers, P. C. (2009). The architecture of instructional theory. P. 305-326.

It's insightful that Gibbons and Rogers distinguish Design Theory from Domain Theory: "An enormous literature exists on design instrumentalities for instructional designers. However, the theoretic roots of current design practices are difficult to trace in that literature." (p. 311)

Design layering (p. 313)

i. Design of building

1. Site - the geographic setting and the legally defined lot, having boundaries and context
   
2. Structure - the foundation and load-bearing elements of the building
3. Skin - the exterior surfaces
4. Services - the communications wiring, electrical wiring, plumbing, sprinkler system, HVAC (heating, ventilating, air conditioning), and moving parts like elevators and escalators
5. Space plan - the interior layout-where walls, ceilings, floors, and doors go
6. Stuff - chairs, desks, phones, pictures, kitchen appliances, lamps, etc.: things that move around inside spaces (Brand, 1994)
   

ii. Design layering of instructional design (p. 315)

1. Content layer: subject-matter elements (e.g., domain knowledge)
   
2. Strategy layer: organization of space, participants, goals, patterns of interaction and experience (e.g., modeling, scaffolding, coaching, situated learning, intrinsic motivation)
   
3. Message layer: language that communciates info to the learner (e.g., multimedia, combined graphics and text, animations, or video)
   
4. Control layer: control structure for leaner to express to the source of learning experience (e.g., student responds to instruction or problems)
   
5. Representation layer: media channels that visualize the message (e.g., use of videoconferencing in international distance education courses)
   
6. Media-logic layer: the mechanism by which representations are caused to occur in their designed or computed sequence
7. Data management layer: data collection, analysis, report and archiving

Root in Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction

Online learning 2: Pedagogical theories & instructional design

Pedagogical frameworks

1. Andragogic Model

• let learners know why sth. is important to learn
• assist learners to direct themselves through info
• relate the topic to the learners' experiences
  

2. Objectivist Model (for short modules on specific concepts and skills)

• the world is completely and correctly structured
• intro-concept-example-practice-reflection (traditional textbook design)
  

3. Constructivist Model (for academically challenging longer modules and courses)

• knowledge is contextual, meanings are rooted in the indexed by experience
• problem-background-concept-analysis-solution (multidisciplinary, real-life problems)
  

4. Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956)

• Knowledge: list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.
• Comprehension: summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict, associate, distinguish, discuss, extend, etc.
• Application: apply, demonstrate, complete, show, solve, examine, relate, change, classify, discover, etc.
• Analysis: analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange, compare, select, explain, infer, etc.
• Synthesis: combine integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create, design, invent, what if?, compose, formulate, prepare, generalize, rewrite, etc.
• Evaluation: assess, decide, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, convince, select judge, explain, discriminate, support, conclude, compare, summarize, etc.
  

5. Problem-based learning (PBL)

• a professional preparation strategy that uses multifaceted, cross-disciplinary problems as the starting point for learning
• it draws on memory theory (activation of prior knowledge), problem solving theory (transfer concepts to new problems), and instance theory (pattern recognition)

Design and production of online content

1. Professional mode of production (e.g., for-profit online learning companies) - development team consists of SME (professor), advisory board, instructional designer - often takes 6 months

• (1) Planning (time varies): faculty preparation, draft of a working curriculum, time line, budget, work plan
  
• (2) Analysis and design (10 wks): curricular development, content analysis and initial design presentation
• (3) Development (10 wks): product development, faculty input, alpha lockdown (each module), beta lockdown (entire course)
• (4) Implementation (4 wks): implementation, evaluation, revisions and maintenance
  

2. Self-publication (web 2.0 is a catalyst?)

Online learning 1 - Adoption & implementation of innovations

Three challenges:

• 1. Professionals from diverse academic backgrounds have little shared knowledge which causes major problems when planning & implementing online ed.
• 2. Online instructors lack pedagogical background (e.g., constructivist approach, peer learning...)
• 3. Voice of the clients (students) rarely heard

Diffusion of innovations (Rogers, 1995)

• Why understand the innovation implementation process - 1. help understand why online learning initiatives succeed or fail; 2. how universities decide on policies that directly affect how instructors are required to deliver their courses
• Diffusion: the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system (Rogers, 1995)
• Adopter (individual or organization) types: Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards.
• Three types of innovation decisions: 1. Optional (problem: member vs. system); 2. Collective (problem: time-consuming, costly) ; 3. Authority (problem: online learning companies take advantage) - reflection: can web 2.0 change the landscape?
• Disruptive technology (Christensen, 1997) - organizations are reluctant to venture into more risky but highly promising technologies (problem for web 2.0?)
• Adoption stages: 1. knowledge; 2. persuasion; 3. decision; 4. implementation; 5. confirmation
• Alternative of the change process (Fullan, 1991, p. 48): 1. initiation; 2. implementation; 3. continuation; 4. outcome

1. The initiation stage (intent): (1) selective perception; (2) attitudes forming (Contemplators, Adopters, & Rejectors); (3) adopter's sense of control; (4) teaching, administrative, and research aspects; (5) companies effect; (6) peer opinion & professional community; (7) administrative support

2. The implementation stage (overt change of behavior): (1) online learning represents a major shift of power (from instructors to instructional designers and learners, universities to corporate learning environments, f2f content to online, and now web 2.0 vs. commercial approach?); (2) non-research universities implement online learning faster (e.g., U. of Phoenix); (3) peer support & strong professional community; (4) business schools are always early adopters (because they stay close with the business front?)

3. The continuation stage (sustainability): (1) administrative support; (2) professional development; (3) facilitative educational methods

4. The outcome stage (assessment): (1) increased ability to apply what has been learned; (2) higher degree of satisfaction among educators and learners; (3) lower employee turnover; (4) the opportunity to cascade certain theories or methods down through the organization via online learning; (5) increased administrative efficiency

Reference:

Engvig, M. (2006). Online learning: All you need to know to facilitate and administer online courses. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Christensen, C. M. (1997). The innovation dilemma. New York: Harper Business.

Fullan, M. G. (1991). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press.

"Going global": The complexities of fostering intercultural understanding in a rural school using videoconferencing technology

Lee, M. M. (2004). "Going global": The complexities of fostering intercultural understanding in a rural school using videoconferencing technology. Unpublished dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Chapter 1. Introduction

• Emphasis on internationalization of curricula
  
  • social change
  • general goals (Tye, 2002): a. broadening students' horizons; b. building critical thinking skills; better preparing young people for productive lives in a nation that belongs to an increasingly interdependent world community
    
• Problems
  
  • Access & opportunities (Kim, 2001)
    
  • Individualization v. universalization (Kim, 2001)
    
  • cultural consciousness (Banks, 1997)
• Midwestern State, Henderson School & International Studies for Henderson State Schools (ISHS)
• Framing the study (p. 5)
  
  • Intercultural Education (Cushner, 1998)
    
  • International studies (Merryfield, 2001)
  • Videoconferencing technology (Cuban, 1986; Reznich, 1997; Roberts et al., 1990; Yoakam, 1995; Tiedemann, 2002 - 4 benefits of videoconferencing: a. It is direct communication with experts to enhance understanding of a subject matter; b. it heightens interest which improves motivation and retention; c. it overcomes time and distance constraints; d. it improves the spontaneity of guests)
  • ISHS
  • Interaction as instructional strategy (Lee & Paulus, 2001; Moore, 1993; Vygotsky, 1978 - ZPD; Bonk, Oyer & Medury, 1995 - social constructivist; Garrison, 1993, p. 16 - interaction; Gilert & Moore, 1998 - interaction)
    
• Significance of the study
  
  • No research to substantiate the impact of ISHS
  • Rurual school's isolation
  • The findings provide insight into the understanding of complexities associated with cross-cultural encounters; suggest possible implications of this type of program for educators who want to develop learning environments where the students can be empowered with a sense of intercultural competence as members of a multicultural society
• Research questions
  
  • How does a middle school social studies teacher in a racially homogenous middle school integrate an international sutdies program into his World Geography curriculum?
  • How do the middle school students understand and interpret their encounters with people from other countries through interactive videoconferencing technology?

Chapter 2. The Design of the Study (p. 18) ( qualitative research - Lincoln & Cuba, 1985; Merriam, 1998; Wolcott, 1992)

• Definition of Ethnography (Creswell, 1998; Tedlock, 2000; Chambers, 2000)
• My stance as a critical theorist (Critical theory - Poskewitz, 1999a, p.2) - look at the program as either
  
  • an intervention, the effectiveness of which is assessed by measuring the change in students' perception about other cultures (attitudinal change), or
  • an opportunity to introduce the students to other cultures in order to see their reaction to such an opportunity (naturalistic ethnographic approach)
• Methodological implications
  
  • ethnographic method is helpful in providing detailed info about participants & their surroundings
  • Individualized interaction techniques (building rapport)
• The research design
  
  • Outline of the study
    
    • Phase 1: Search for possible locations using Henderson State demographic statistics and select 5 possible sites
    • Phase 2: Meet w/ Mr. G and obtain his agreement for the implementation of ISHS into his curriculum
    • Phase 3: Make observations and acclimate to the setting (continued until Phase 7)
      
    • Phase 4: Begin ISHS. Conduct sutdent/teacher interviews. Begin observation and engage in preliminary analysis
    • Phase 5: ISHS presenters' interviews (for causal feedback). Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 6: Transcription of data and search for emerging themes. Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 7: Data analysis. Ongoing observation. (themes from interviews were compared to the observation - basis for coding. Triangulation)
    • Phase 8: Further interviews w/ the students (questions drawn upon based on the preliminary analysis). Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 9: Analysis and write-up.
  • Research site
    
    • Selection criteria (purposive sampling): a. social studies class in rural high school; b. teacher agreement on using ISHS for entire school year; c. culturally isolated & racially homogeneous
    • Instructional characteristics of the Eliot School (school vision)
      
    • Technology use in the Eliot School
    • Participants (students, teachers)
• Data collection
  
  • Observation (regualr classes without ISHS; class during the ISHS sessions; hallways & cafeteria; school functions such as athletic events; school area & nearby towns) ; to minimize the researcher's obtrusiveness (as an Asian) by regrulating her visits to the public areas of the school so that the students would become accustomed to her presence; examples of the observation data
  • Document analysis (textbook; class assignments)
  • Interviews (student, teacher)
• Data anaylsis (p. 45)
  
  • Reconstructive analysis & diglogical data generation (emerging themes; check understandings with teachers & locals)
  • Coding (repeated reading of the data - preliminary analysis; topics compared across the data and grouped into emerging themes. Peer debriefing; discussion with the faculty)
  • Discovering system relations (findings compared w/ larger social context - Carspecken, 1996): Hermeneutic-reconstructive anlysis emphasizes action orientations such as interpretive schemes within a culture; systems analysis emphasizes action consequences and the distribution of action conditions broadly throughout society
    
    • The findings from the school site were compared w/ info about the neighborhood & the town (community)
    • The findings were compared to the dominant discourse of the period that sutdents were exposed to from media sources and conversation w/ others outside of the school
• Possible limitations of the study
  
  • Focus group interviews w/ the students (group form may have inhibitory effects)
    
  • My role as researcher/participant (3-fold role - involvement in the implementation; worked as presenter; conducting the research process)
  • The novelty factor of the videoconferencing technology
  • Myself as an international student (Hawthorne effect)

Chapter 3. "Bringing the world into the classroom": The ISHS program in session (p. 50)

• Sections
• Discussion
  
  • Emphasis on interaction
  • "Personalized narratives
  • Uses of other technologies
  • Presenter's characteristics
• Other instructional interventions for intercultural awareness
  
  • Career talk with the ISHS outreach coordinator
  • Ms. Hilary's diversity program

Chapter 4. "Making it relevant": The teacher's use of the ISHS program (p. 82)

• The teacher's personal values and views on education
  
  • Being a coach vs. being a teacher
  • Being tolerant vs. having strong moral convictions
• 'No Child Left Behind' & issues of parental responsibilities
• On instructional strategies
  
  • Increasing student motivation
  • Student-center pedagogy
  • Bringing in current affairs
• "Making relevant": Integrating ISHS into the curriculum
• The future use of ISHS (p. 101)
• Discussion
  
  • ISHS as a "live" resource
  • Understanding Mr. Gordon's identity

Chapter 5. "Meeting the real person": The students' interpretation of the ISHS program (p. 105)

• Students' interpretation of the "other": Constructing difference in school (Identity - Mead, 1934; Habermas, 1981; Kanpol & McLauren, 1995, Hall, 1996; Taylor, 1994; Schutz, 1970; Sleeter & Grant, 1991; Hall & du Gay, 1996)
  
  • Groups & labels (social class variations - Brantlinger, 1993) - being popular
  • Homosexuality (Allport, 1979, p. 87 - well-deserved reputation theory)
  • "Being popular": Power & legitimacy (Allport, 1979; Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)
    
  • Racism
• Difference & the ISHS videoconferencing programs (Self-Other relations - Fine, 1994)
  
  • Interest in the exotic (Ashcroft et al., 2000, p. 94)
  • Americanized cultural forms & U.S.-centrism
  • "Coming from a real person": Authenticity & group essentialism
  • Differentiating vs. "othering"
• Discussion
  
  • Popularity & racism: The discourse of exclusion (Sarup, 1996, p. 59)
  • Making sense of the difference (Cushner, 2003 - difference as diviation generates the sense of fear)
  • Oversimplification of other cultures
• Possible reasons for the interpretation (p. 139)
  
  • Culture-specific approach to understanding other cultures (Cushner, 2003, p. 42)
  • Emphasis on ethnicism or "national character" (internally homogenous - Brah, 1997, p. 129)
  • View of culture as static (Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)

Chapter 6. Conclusions & implications for future research (p. 142)

• Tentative conclusion
  
  • Positive response to ISHS
  • resulted in interpretations of culture emphasizing the exotic in some cases and in the search for Americanization in others
  • didn't result in an awareness of, or challenge to, an already established framework for understanding differences
• Future implications
  
  • Providing a support system for the teacher
    
    • understanding how differnce is constructed
    • community of practice for social studies teachers (Wenger, 1998)
  • Implications for instructional design issues (Merryfield, 2001)
    
    • continuous implementation of ISHS
    • collaborative problem solving approach
    • teaching tolerance: providing instructional resources
    • collaboration between rural schools and universities
    • providing a panel of speakers
  • Administrative support for the ISHS program from the university
    
    • creating more tangible incentive for the presenters
    • creating additional partnership
  • For further research
    
    • further conceptualization of differences for particular contexts and learners
    • issues on curriculum design in social studies
    • teacher education for social studies
    • politics of international education

References

Appendix

• Sample interview protocol for students
• Sample interview protocol for teacher
• Pre-survey questions for students
• Reflection of the session (students)
• Summary of events
• Sample of preliminary analysis

The Systematic Design of Instruction

The Dick & Carey systems approach model for designing instruction (Link)

1. Identify instructional goal(s)
   
   • Performance analysis
   • Needs assessment
   • Job analysis
   • Clarifying instructional goals
   • Learners, context, and tools
   • Criteria for establishing instructional goals
     
2. Conduct instructional analysis
   
   • Conducting a goal analysis
     
     • Verbal info
     • Intellectual skills
     • Psychomotor skills
     • Attitudes
     • Cognitive strategies
     • Goal analysis procedures
     • Analysis of substeps
   • Identifying subordinate skills and entry behaviors
     
     • Hierarchical approach
     • Procedural analysis
     • Cluster analysis
     • Subordinate skills analysis techniques for attitude goals
     • Combining instructional analysis techniques
     • Instructional analysis diagrams
     • Entry behaviors
     • The tentativeness of entry behaviors
       
3. Analyze learners and contexts
   
   • Learner analysis
   • Collecting data for learner analysis
   • Analysis of performance context
   • Collecting data for performance context analysis
   • Analysis of learning context
   • Collecting data for learning context analysis
   • Public school contexts
   • Evaluation and revision of the instructional analysis
     
4. Write performance objectives
   
   • Performance objective
   • Components of an objective
   • Derivation of behaviors
   • Derivation of conditions
   • Derivation of criteria
   • Process for writing objectives
   • Evaluation of objectives
   • The function of objectives
     
5. Develop assessment instruments
   
   • Four types of criterion-referenced tests and their uses
   • Designing a test
   • Determining mastery levels
   • Writing test items
   • Setting mastery criteria
   • Types of items
   • Sequencing items
   • Writing directions
   • Evaluating tests and test items
   • Developing instruments to measure performances, products, and attitudes
   • Using portfolio assessments
   • Evaluating congruence in the design process
     
6. Develop instructional strategy
   
   • Selection of delivery system
   • Content sequence and clustering
   • Learning components of instructional strategies
   • Learning components for learners of different maturity and ability levels
   • Learning components for various learning outcomes
   • Learning components for constructivist strategies
   • Student groupings
   • Selection of media and delivery systems
     
7. Develop and select instructional materials
   
   • The delivery system and media selections
   • Components of an instructional package
   • Selecting existing instructional materials
   • The designer's role in material development and instructional delivery
   • Developing instructional materials for formative evaluation
     
8. Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction
   
   • Designing formative evaluations
   • Role of subject-matter, learning, and learner specialists in formative evaluation
   • One-to-one evaluation with learners
   • Small group evaluation
   • Field trial
   • Formative evaluation in the performance context
   • Formative evaluation of selected materials
     
   • Formative evaluation of instructor-led instruction
   • Data collection for selected materials and instructor-led instruction
   • Concerns influencing formative evaluation
   • Problem solving during instructional design
     
9. Revise instruction
   
   • Analyzing data from one-to-one trials
   • Analyzing data from small-group and field trials
   • Revision process
   • Revising selected materials and instructor-led instruction
     
10. Design and conduct summative evaluation
    
    • Expert judgment phase of summative evaluation
    • Field trial phase of summative evaluation
    • Comparison of formative and summative evaluations

Dick, W., Cary, L., & Carey, J. O. (2005), The Systematic Design of Instruction (6th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Other ID resources:

• ADDIE
• Modlels
• Resources for ISD
  

Integrating intercultural online learning experiences into the computer classroom

St. Amant, K. (2002). Integrating intercultural online learning experiences into the computer classroom. Technical Communication Quarterly, 11 (3), 289-315.

"Technical communicators of the new millennium will need to develop certain skills to succeed in international online interactions (IOIs), and computer classrooms with online access can help students to develop these skills through direct interaction with materials and individuals from other cultures. This article presents exercises instructors can use to help students develop these particular skills."

Major project idea?

Still struggling with ideas for EDTEC770 major project (for which I would like to do an evaluation/comparative study for international distance education programs)...

Well, here is where I am:

1. Last year, my colleagues and I did a research on learner perceptions of interaction in the Global Media Network. What we did was a pilot study that examines the learner-learner, learner-instructor, learner-content, and learner-media interaction. We conducted an online survey which resulted in 16 respondents, with 7 from a BSU-located GMN classroom and 9 from their Taiwanese counterparts. It was a fairly small sample size but it was not too bad for a pilot study. The survey consisted of 6 parts: 1. Demographic, 2. Learning Style, 3. Interaction Frequency, 4. Interaction Depth, 5. Satisfaction, and 6. Open-Ended Questions. Likert Scale was applied to all questions except those in Part 1 and Part 6. The reliablity statistics showed our 21-item instrument is reliable (Cronbach's Alpha=.879) and can be distributed to a large sample in the future study. Based on the findings, we suggested that the GMN participants preferred interaction with the classmates and media and they might want to see some improvement in their interaction with the instructors and course content. In addition, findings of group comparison (American VS Taiwanese cross-tab) provided some clue for further study on cross-cultural difference and international collaborative learning in the distance learning environment.


2. For my EDTEC699 class, I planned to develop another evaluation study proposal on the GMN. However, this time the focus is on the faculty and staff perceptions rather than the learners. A possible title for this study might be - Instructional Needs and Technology Support in International Distance Education: A Qualitative Study of Faculty and Technology Staff Perceptions. Professional development and technology support are essential for faculty to successfully develop distance education program. Over the past several years, as the numbers of courses offered through the GMN system has increased, so has the discussion among university faculty regarding the technology support in this environment. Among those discussed issues, what interest me most are the GMN faculty perceptions on their demand for training opportunities and the actual technology assistance they receive, and how such perceptions compare to those from the technology staff involved. In an effort to identify the possible discrepancies between the needs and the actual support which might have an essential impact on the distance course development, I would like to investigate the above-mentioned issues through qualitative methods (e.g., interview, observation, etc.).

3. For EDTEC770 class, I originally planned to do a cross-cultural study on the GMN. However, I found it extremely difficult when cross-cultural issues add to the depth and magnitude of complexities in evaluation. I can still use the methodology from my first study and run some stats to test the difference but I don't know if that is a good idea or not. I really need some help.

P.S.
Lee, C., Clausen, J., & Ma, W. (2007). Learner perceptions of interaction in the Global Media Network. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.). Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2007, 1800-1806.

Abstract:
Interaction has critical impacts on the effectiveness of distance learning. To understand interaction based on learners' perceptions can assist learner-oriented learning, as well as enhance the instructional design. This paper focuses on the online interaction perceived by the learners in the Global Media Network (GMN) project, an international synchronous distance learning environment initiated in 2005 at Ball State University, Indiana. The primary data collection method is an online survey which focuses on four types of online interaction. The findings reveal the learning preferences and perspectives of the GMN participants toward different types of online interaction, which could be used for further improvement of the GMN course development. Because of the small sample size in this study, further study should include a much larger number of participants.

Building bridges between serious game design and instructional design

Kirley, J., Kirkley, S., & Heneghan, J. (2007). Building bridges between serious game design and instructional design: A blueprint for now and the future. In B. E. Shelton & D. A. Wiley (Eds.), The design and use of simulation computer games in education (pp. 61-83). Sense Publishers.

This article discusses how to balance fun and engagement with learning, how to build effective design teams that use each other’s strength, how to create common models and processes, and how to develop innovate games that will revolutionize learning, not only the outcomes but how we define and understand it. In fact, one of the strengths of technology is that it keeps us from getting too comfortable in our seats. As new technologies emerge, so do new forms of communicating, collaborating, and creating. This calls for constantly rethinking our approach to design and development, especially as we are challenged to deal with new design concepts and capabilities (e.g. what can your game engine do), different types of designs (e.g., how will your learner experience and process virtual environment), and how game design and instructional design can come together to create learning environments that are increasingly authentic, engaging, and that help people to see the world from a different perspective. Its implication for educators would be how to use simulations to produce positive impact on the students in terms of teaching and inspiring them in meaningful ways.