"Going global": The complexities of fostering intercultural understanding in a rural school using videoconferencing technology

Lee, M. M. (2004). "Going global": The complexities of fostering intercultural understanding in a rural school using videoconferencing technology. Unpublished dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Chapter 1. Introduction

• Emphasis on internationalization of curricula
  
  • social change
  • general goals (Tye, 2002): a. broadening students' horizons; b. building critical thinking skills; better preparing young people for productive lives in a nation that belongs to an increasingly interdependent world community
    
• Problems
  
  • Access & opportunities (Kim, 2001)
    
  • Individualization v. universalization (Kim, 2001)
    
  • cultural consciousness (Banks, 1997)
• Midwestern State, Henderson School & International Studies for Henderson State Schools (ISHS)
• Framing the study (p. 5)
  
  • Intercultural Education (Cushner, 1998)
    
  • International studies (Merryfield, 2001)
  • Videoconferencing technology (Cuban, 1986; Reznich, 1997; Roberts et al., 1990; Yoakam, 1995; Tiedemann, 2002 - 4 benefits of videoconferencing: a. It is direct communication with experts to enhance understanding of a subject matter; b. it heightens interest which improves motivation and retention; c. it overcomes time and distance constraints; d. it improves the spontaneity of guests)
  • ISHS
  • Interaction as instructional strategy (Lee & Paulus, 2001; Moore, 1993; Vygotsky, 1978 - ZPD; Bonk, Oyer & Medury, 1995 - social constructivist; Garrison, 1993, p. 16 - interaction; Gilert & Moore, 1998 - interaction)
    
• Significance of the study
  
  • No research to substantiate the impact of ISHS
  • Rurual school's isolation
  • The findings provide insight into the understanding of complexities associated with cross-cultural encounters; suggest possible implications of this type of program for educators who want to develop learning environments where the students can be empowered with a sense of intercultural competence as members of a multicultural society
• Research questions
  
  • How does a middle school social studies teacher in a racially homogenous middle school integrate an international sutdies program into his World Geography curriculum?
  • How do the middle school students understand and interpret their encounters with people from other countries through interactive videoconferencing technology?

Chapter 2. The Design of the Study (p. 18) ( qualitative research - Lincoln & Cuba, 1985; Merriam, 1998; Wolcott, 1992)

• Definition of Ethnography (Creswell, 1998; Tedlock, 2000; Chambers, 2000)
• My stance as a critical theorist (Critical theory - Poskewitz, 1999a, p.2) - look at the program as either
  
  • an intervention, the effectiveness of which is assessed by measuring the change in students' perception about other cultures (attitudinal change), or
  • an opportunity to introduce the students to other cultures in order to see their reaction to such an opportunity (naturalistic ethnographic approach)
• Methodological implications
  
  • ethnographic method is helpful in providing detailed info about participants & their surroundings
  • Individualized interaction techniques (building rapport)
• The research design
  
  • Outline of the study
    
    • Phase 1: Search for possible locations using Henderson State demographic statistics and select 5 possible sites
    • Phase 2: Meet w/ Mr. G and obtain his agreement for the implementation of ISHS into his curriculum
    • Phase 3: Make observations and acclimate to the setting (continued until Phase 7)
      
    • Phase 4: Begin ISHS. Conduct sutdent/teacher interviews. Begin observation and engage in preliminary analysis
    • Phase 5: ISHS presenters' interviews (for causal feedback). Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 6: Transcription of data and search for emerging themes. Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 7: Data analysis. Ongoing observation. (themes from interviews were compared to the observation - basis for coding. Triangulation)
    • Phase 8: Further interviews w/ the students (questions drawn upon based on the preliminary analysis). Ongoing observation.
    • Phase 9: Analysis and write-up.
  • Research site
    
    • Selection criteria (purposive sampling): a. social studies class in rural high school; b. teacher agreement on using ISHS for entire school year; c. culturally isolated & racially homogeneous
    • Instructional characteristics of the Eliot School (school vision)
      
    • Technology use in the Eliot School
    • Participants (students, teachers)
• Data collection
  
  • Observation (regualr classes without ISHS; class during the ISHS sessions; hallways & cafeteria; school functions such as athletic events; school area & nearby towns) ; to minimize the researcher's obtrusiveness (as an Asian) by regrulating her visits to the public areas of the school so that the students would become accustomed to her presence; examples of the observation data
  • Document analysis (textbook; class assignments)
  • Interviews (student, teacher)
• Data anaylsis (p. 45)
  
  • Reconstructive analysis & diglogical data generation (emerging themes; check understandings with teachers & locals)
  • Coding (repeated reading of the data - preliminary analysis; topics compared across the data and grouped into emerging themes. Peer debriefing; discussion with the faculty)
  • Discovering system relations (findings compared w/ larger social context - Carspecken, 1996): Hermeneutic-reconstructive anlysis emphasizes action orientations such as interpretive schemes within a culture; systems analysis emphasizes action consequences and the distribution of action conditions broadly throughout society
    
    • The findings from the school site were compared w/ info about the neighborhood & the town (community)
    • The findings were compared to the dominant discourse of the period that sutdents were exposed to from media sources and conversation w/ others outside of the school
• Possible limitations of the study
  
  • Focus group interviews w/ the students (group form may have inhibitory effects)
    
  • My role as researcher/participant (3-fold role - involvement in the implementation; worked as presenter; conducting the research process)
  • The novelty factor of the videoconferencing technology
  • Myself as an international student (Hawthorne effect)

Chapter 3. "Bringing the world into the classroom": The ISHS program in session (p. 50)

• Sections
• Discussion
  
  • Emphasis on interaction
  • "Personalized narratives
  • Uses of other technologies
  • Presenter's characteristics
• Other instructional interventions for intercultural awareness
  
  • Career talk with the ISHS outreach coordinator
  • Ms. Hilary's diversity program

Chapter 4. "Making it relevant": The teacher's use of the ISHS program (p. 82)

• The teacher's personal values and views on education
  
  • Being a coach vs. being a teacher
  • Being tolerant vs. having strong moral convictions
• 'No Child Left Behind' & issues of parental responsibilities
• On instructional strategies
  
  • Increasing student motivation
  • Student-center pedagogy
  • Bringing in current affairs
• "Making relevant": Integrating ISHS into the curriculum
• The future use of ISHS (p. 101)
• Discussion
  
  • ISHS as a "live" resource
  • Understanding Mr. Gordon's identity

Chapter 5. "Meeting the real person": The students' interpretation of the ISHS program (p. 105)

• Students' interpretation of the "other": Constructing difference in school (Identity - Mead, 1934; Habermas, 1981; Kanpol & McLauren, 1995, Hall, 1996; Taylor, 1994; Schutz, 1970; Sleeter & Grant, 1991; Hall & du Gay, 1996)
  
  • Groups & labels (social class variations - Brantlinger, 1993) - being popular
  • Homosexuality (Allport, 1979, p. 87 - well-deserved reputation theory)
  • "Being popular": Power & legitimacy (Allport, 1979; Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)
    
  • Racism
• Difference & the ISHS videoconferencing programs (Self-Other relations - Fine, 1994)
  
  • Interest in the exotic (Ashcroft et al., 2000, p. 94)
  • Americanized cultural forms & U.S.-centrism
  • "Coming from a real person": Authenticity & group essentialism
  • Differentiating vs. "othering"
• Discussion
  
  • Popularity & racism: The discourse of exclusion (Sarup, 1996, p. 59)
  • Making sense of the difference (Cushner, 2003 - difference as diviation generates the sense of fear)
  • Oversimplification of other cultures
• Possible reasons for the interpretation (p. 139)
  
  • Culture-specific approach to understanding other cultures (Cushner, 2003, p. 42)
  • Emphasis on ethnicism or "national character" (internally homogenous - Brah, 1997, p. 129)
  • View of culture as static (Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)

Chapter 6. Conclusions & implications for future research (p. 142)

• Tentative conclusion
  
  • Positive response to ISHS
  • resulted in interpretations of culture emphasizing the exotic in some cases and in the search for Americanization in others
  • didn't result in an awareness of, or challenge to, an already established framework for understanding differences
• Future implications
  
  • Providing a support system for the teacher
    
    • understanding how differnce is constructed
    • community of practice for social studies teachers (Wenger, 1998)
  • Implications for instructional design issues (Merryfield, 2001)
    
    • continuous implementation of ISHS
    • collaborative problem solving approach
    • teaching tolerance: providing instructional resources
    • collaboration between rural schools and universities
    • providing a panel of speakers
  • Administrative support for the ISHS program from the university
    
    • creating more tangible incentive for the presenters
    • creating additional partnership
  • For further research
    
    • further conceptualization of differences for particular contexts and learners
    • issues on curriculum design in social studies
    • teacher education for social studies
    • politics of international education

References

Appendix

• Sample interview protocol for students
• Sample interview protocol for teacher
• Pre-survey questions for students
• Reflection of the session (students)
• Summary of events
• Sample of preliminary analysis

Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications (3): Evaluating a report

Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2006). Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications (8th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Chapter 22. Evaluating a research report (p. 541)

General evaluation criteria

1. Introduction

1.1. Problem (p. 542)

• Is there a statement of the problem? Does the problem indicate a particular focus of study?
• Is the problem "researchable"; that is, can it be investigated through collecting and analyzing data?
• Is background information on the problem presented?
• Is the educational significance of the problem discussed?
• Does the problem statement indicate the variables of interest and the specific relationship between those variables that were investigated?
• When necessary, are variables directly or operationally defined?
• Did the researcher have the knowledge and skills to carry out the research?

1.2. Literature Review

• Is the review comprehensive?
• Are all cited references relevant to the problem under investigation?
• Are most of the sources primary (i.e., are there only a few or no secondary sources)?
• Have the references been analyzed and critiqued and the results of various studies compared and contrasted? That, is the review more than a series of abstracts or annotations?
• Is the relevancy of each reference explained?
• Is the review well organized? Does it logically flow in such a way that the references least related to the problem are discussed first and lose most related are discussed last? Does it educate the reader about the problem or topic?
• Does the review conclude with a summary and interpretation of the literature and its implications for the problem investigated?
• Do the implications discussed form an empirical or theoretical rationale for the hypotheses that follow?
• Are references cited completely and accurately?

1.3. Hypotheses

• Are specific research questions listed or specific hypotheses stated?
• Does each hypothesis state an expected relationship or difference?
• If necessary, are variables directly or operationally defined?
• Is each hypothesis testable?

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2. Method (p. 543)

2.1. Participants

• Are the size and major characteristics of the population studied?
• Are the accessible and target populations described?
• If a sample was selected, is the method of selecting the sample clearly described?
• Does the method of sample selection suggest any limitations or biases in the sample? For example, was stratified sampling used to obtain sample described?
• If the study is quantitative, does the sample size meet the suggested guidelines for the minimum sample size appropriate for the method of research represented?

2.2. Instruments

• Do instruments and their administration meet guidelines for protecting human subjects? Were needed permissions obtained?
• Is the rationale given for the selection of the instruments (or measurements) used?
• Are the purpose, content, validity, and reliability of each instruments described?
• Are the instruments appropriate for measuring the intended variables?
• Does the researcher have the needed skills or experience to construct or administer an instrument?
• Is evidence presented to indicate that the instruments are appropriate for the intended sample? For example, is the reading level of an instrument suitable for sample participants?
• If appropriate, are subtest reliabilities given?
• If an instrument was developed specifically for the study, are the procedures involved in its development and validation described?
• If an instrument was developed specifically for the study, are administration, scoring or tabulating, and interpretation procedures fully described?
• Was the correct type of instrument used for data collection (or, for example, was a norm-referenced instrument used when a criterion-referenced one was more suitable)?

2.3. Design and procedure

• Are the design and procedures appropriate for examining the research question or testing the hypotheses of the study?
• Are the procedures described in sufficient detail to permit replication by another researcher?
• Do procedures logically relate to one another?
• Were instruments and procedures applied correctly?
• If a pilot study was conducted, are its execution and results described as well as its effect on the subsequent study?
• Are control procedures described?
• Does the researcher discuss or account for any potentially confounding variable that he or she was unable to control

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3. Results

• Are appropriate descriptive statistics presented?
• Was the probability level at which the results of the tests of significance were evaluated specified in advance of the data analyses? Was every hypothesis tested?
• If parametric tests were used, is there evidence that the researcher avoided violating the required assumptions for parametric tests?
• Are the described tests of significance appropriate, given the hypotheses and design of the study?
• Was the inductive logic used to produce results in a qualitative study made explicit?
• Are the tests of significance interpreted using the appropriate degrees of freedom?
• Are the results clearly described?
• Are the tables and figures (if any) well organized and easy to understand?
• Are the data in each table and figure described in the text?

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4. Discussion

• Is each result discussed in terms of the original hypothesis or topic to which it relates?
• Is each result discussed in terms of its agreement or disagreement with previous results obtained by other researchers in other studies?
• Are generalizations consistent with the results?
• Are the possible effects of uncontrolled variables on the results discussed?
• Are theoretical and practical implications of the findings discussed?
• Are recommendations for future action made?
• Are the suggestions for future action based on practical significance or on statistical significance only (i.e., has the author avoided confusing practical and statistical significance)?

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5. Abstract or Summary

• Is the problem restated?
• Are the number and type of subjects and instruments described?
• Is the design used identified?
• Are procedures described?
• Are the major results and conclusions restated?

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Type-specific evaluation criteria

1. Qualitative research (in general)

• Does the topic studied describe a general sense of the study focus?
• Does the researcher state a "guiding hypothesis" for the investigation?
• Is the application of the qualitative method chosen described in detail?
• Is the context of the qualitative study described in detail?
• Is the purposive sampling procedure described and related to the study focus?
• Is each data collection strategy described?
• Is the researcher's role stated (e.g., nonparticipant observer, participant observer, interviewer, etc.)?
• Is the research site and the researcher's entry into it described?
• Were the data collection strategies used appropriately, given the purpose of the study?
• Were strategies used to strengthen the validity and reliability of the data (e.g. triangulation)
• Is there a description of how any unexpected ethical issues were handled?
• Are strategies used to minimize observer bias and observer effect described?
• Are the researcher's reactions and notes differentiated from descriptive field notes?
• Are data coding strategies described and examples of coded data given?
• Is the inductive logic applied to the data to produce results stated in detail?
• Are conclusions supported by data (e.g., are direct quotations from participants used to illustrate points made)?
  

1.1. Interview studies

• Were the interview procedures pretested?
• Are pilot study procedures and results described?
• Does each item in the interview guide relate to a specific objective of the study?
• When necessary, is a point of reference given in the guide for interview items?
• Are leading questions avoided in the interview guide?
• Is the language and complexity of the questions appropriate for the participants?
• Does the interview guide indicate the type and amount of prompting and probing that was permitted?
• Are the qualifications and special training of the interviewers described?
• Is the method used to record responses described?
• Did the researcher use the most reliable, unbiased method of recording response that could have been used?
• Does the researcher specify how the response to semistructured and unstructured items were quantified and analyzed?

2. Ethnographic research

• Does the written account (the ethnography) capture the social, cultural, economic themes that emerged from the study?
• Did the researcher spend a "full cycle" in the field studying the phenomenon?

Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications (2): Data analysis & interpretation

Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2006). Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications (8th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Chapter 18. Qualitative research: Data analysis and interpretation (p. 467)

Data analysis: an attempt by the researcher to summarize collected data in a dependable and accurate manner (summarizing what's in the data)

Data interpretation: an attempt by the researcher to find meaning in the data and to answer the "So what?" question in terms of the implications of the study's findings (making sense of/ finding meaning in that data)

1. Data analysis during data collection: gathering data, examining data, comparing prior data to newer data, writing up field notes before going back to the research site, and making plans to gather new data. Two questions that guide qualitative work and reflections (Anderson et al., 1994, p. 155):

• is your research question still answerable and worth answering?
• are your data collection techniques catching the kind of data you wanted and filtering out the data that you don't

2. Data analysis after data collection - steps (p. 469)

• Reading/memoing: becoming familiar with the data and identifying potential themes in it
• Describing: examining the data in depth to provide detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activity (context)
  
• Classifying: categorizing and coding pieces of data and grouping them into themes
  

3. Data analysis strategies (p. 471)

• Identifying themes
• Coding qualitative data: the process of categorically marking or referencing units of text with codes and labels as a way to indicate patterns and meaning
• Asking key questions: "who is centrally involved?" "What major activities, events, or issues are relevant to the problem?" and so on
• Organizational review: helping the researcher understand the school or other organization as the larger setting. A review should focus on the following features of an organization: vision and mission, goals and objectives, structure of the organization, operation, and problems, issues and concerns
• Concept mapping: visualizes the major influences that have affected th study and to create a visual display that allows for the identification of consistencies and inconsistencies tha may exist between disparate groups
• Analyzing antecedents and consequences: map the antecedents (causes) and consequences (effects) that have emerged throughout the study
• Displaying findings: using matrixes, charts, concept maps, graphs and figures to encapsulate the findings of a study
• Stating what's missing: reflect on the pieces of the puzzle that are still missing at the conclusion of the study and to identify any questions for which answers have not been provided
  

4. Data interpretation techniques (p. 479)

• Extend the analysis
• Seek the advice of "critical" friends
• Contextualize findings in the literature
• Turn to theory
• Know when to say "when"
  

References

Anderson, G. L., Herr, K., & Nihlen, A. S. (1994). Studying your own school: An educator's guide to qualitative practitioner research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Ed research: Competencies for analysis and applications (1)

Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2006). Educational research : competencies for analysis and applications (8th Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Chapter 17. Ethnographic research

1. Definition: the study of the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting (p. 441).

2. Goal: describe, analyze, and interpret the culture of a group, over time, in terms of the group's shared beliefs, behaviors, and language.

3. A construct central to the understanding of ethnography is culture.

Culture: the set of attitudes, values, concepts, beliefs, and practices shared by members of a group.

Three conceptual areas that focus on tangible behaviors (Wolcott, 1999):

• Cultural orientation: where the people being studied are situated in terms of physical space and activities
• Cultural know-how: how a group goes about its daily activities
• Cultural beliefs (why a group does what it does)

4. Ethnographic research process (p. 442)

• Identify the purpose of the research study
• Frame the study as a larger theoretical, policy, or practical problem
• Pose initial ethnographic research questions
• Describe the overall approach and rationale for the study
• Describe the site and sample selection
• Describe the researcher's role (entry to the research site, reciprocity, and ethics)
• Describe data collection methods
• Describe appropriate strategies for the analysis and interpretation of data
• Write the ethnographic account
  

5. Types of ethnographic research (p. 445)

• Critical ethnography: a highly politicized form of ethnography written by a researcher in order to advocate against inequalities and domination of particular groups that exist in society (including schools)
• Realist ethnography: written with an objective style and uses common categories for cultural description, analysis, and interpretation
• Ethnographic case study (less likely to focus on cultural themes): focuses on describing the activities of a specific group and the shared patterns of behavior it develops over time
  

6. Key characteristics of ethnographic research (p. 445)

• carried out in a natural setting
• involves intimate, face-to-face interaction with participants
• presents an accurate refection of participants' perspectives and behaviors
• uses inductive, interactive, and repetitious collection of "unstructured" data and analytic strategies to build local cultural theories
• Data is primarily collected through fieldwork experiences
• typically uses multiple methods for data collection, including conducting interviews and observations, and reviewing documents, artifacts, and visual materials
• frames all human behavior and belief within a sociopolitical and historical context
• uses the concept of culture as a lens through which to interpret results
• places an emphasis on exploring the nature of particular social phenomena, rather than setting out to test hypotheses about them
• investigates a small number of cases, perhaps just one case, in detail
• uses data analysis procedures that involve the explicit interpretation of the meanings and functions of human actions. Interpretations occur within the context or group setting and are presented through the description of themes
• requires that researchers be reflective about their impact on the research site and the cultural group
• offers interpretations of people's actions and behaviors that must be uncovered through an investigation of what people actually do and their reasons for doing it
• offers a representation of a person's life and behavior that is neither the researcher's nor the person's. Instead, it is built upon points of understanding and misunderstanding that occur between researcher and participant (446)
  
• cannot provide an exhaustive, absolute description of anything. Rather, ethnographic descriptions are necessarily partial, bound by what can be handled within a certain time, under specific circumstances, and from a particular perspective
  

7. Ethnographic research techniques

7.1. Triangulation: the use of multiple methods, data collection strategies, and data sources to get a more complete picture of what is being studied and to cross-check information (ensure the trustworthiness/validity of the data)

7.2. Participate observation:

• Purposes: Observe the activities, people, and physical aspects of a situation; Engage in activities that are appropriate to a given situation and that provide useful information
• Active participant observer (p. 447) (e.g., researchers often negotiate roles as teacher's aides, student teachers, or even substitute teachers in order to gain access to schools and classrooms)
• Privileged, active observer (e.g., move in and out as of the role of teacher's aide and observer)
• Passive observer (e.g. the visitor is present only to see what's going on around here)
• Guidelines for participant observation (Wolcott, 1999) (p. 448, 449)
  
  • Gaining entry and maintaining rapport
  • Reciprocity
  • A tolerance for ambiguity
  • Personal determination coupled with faith in oneself
  • Letting go of control
    

7.3. Field notes: written records of the researcher's (participant observer) understandings of the lives, people, and events that are the focus of the research. They should be written up as soon as possible after completion of the observation. In addition to providing literal descriptions, the observer also records personal reactions, generally referred to as reflective field notes (p. 455).

7.4. Observing and recording everything you possibly can (p. 451)

7.5. Observing and looking for nothing in particular (p. 452)

7.6. Looking for "bumps" or paradoxes (p. 453)

7.7 Top 10 guidelines for fieldwork and field notes (Patton, 1990, pp. 272-273)

• be descriptive in taking field notes
• gather a variety of info from different perspectives
• cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kinds of data (e.g., observations, documents, interviews) and by using multiple methods
• using quotations; represent people in their own terms. Capture their experiences in their own words
• select "key informants" wisely and use them carefully. Draw on the wisdom of their informed perspectives, but keep in mind that their perspectives are limited
• be aware of and sensitive to different stages of fieldwork
  
  • build trust and rapport at the beginning. Remember that the observer is also being observed
  • stay alert and disciplined during the more routine, middle phase of fieldwork
  • focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork draws to close
    
• be disciplined and conscientious in taking fieldnotes at all stages of fieldwork
• be as involved as possible in experiencing the situation as fully as possible while maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the purpose of the fieldwork
• clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment
• include in your fieldnotes and report your own experiences, thoughts and feelings
  

References

Wolcott, H. F. (1999). Ethnography: A way of seeing. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Ethnography

Ethnography (ἔθνος ethnos = people and γράφειν graphein = writing) is the genre of writing that presents varying degrees of qualitative and quantitative descriptions of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. Ethnography presents the results of a holistic research method founded on the idea that a system's properties cannot necessarily be accurately understood independently of each other. The genre has both formal and historical connections to travel writing and colonial office reports. Several academic traditions, in particular the constructivist and relativist paradigms, employ ethnographic research as a crucial research method. Many cultural anthropologists consider ethnography the essence of the discipline.


Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2006). The practice of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. (BSU Call No. H62.H478 2006)


Ethnographers ask questions such as:

• How do individuals view their world?
• What is their story?
• How is a custom understood by members of a given culture? (p. 235)

Role of ethnographer

• Complete observer: The researcher's identity remains hidden; the researcher doesn't interact with those in the setting but instead makes observations of the setting by using such devices as hidden video cameras or by remaining invisible behind a one-way mirror or a screen to avoid detection
• Complete participant: The researcher actively engages with members of the setting; however, the researcher's identity is not known to the participants in the setting
• Observer-as-participant: The researcher is required to reveal their identity in the setting, but the extent to which the researcher actively engages with the members of the setting is limited
• Participant-as-observer: The researcher participates fully in the ongoing activities of the research setting, and the identity of the researcher is known to the members of the setting

Discourse and Technology: Multimodal Discourse Analysis

LeVine, P., & Scollon, R. (Eds.). (2004). Discourse and technology: Multimodal discourse and analysis. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

The overarching theme of Discourse and Technology is cutting-edge in the field of linguistics: multimodal discourse. This volume opens up a discussion among discourse analysts and others in linguistics and related fields about the two-fold impact of new communication technologies: The impact on how discourse data is collected, transcribed, and analyzed -- and the impact that these technologies are having on social interaction and discourse.

As inexpensive tape recorders allowed the field to move beyond text, written or printed language, to capture talk -- discourse as spoken language -- the information explosion (including cell phones, video recorders, Internet chat rooms, online journals, and the like) has moved those in the field to recognize that all discourse is, in various ways, "multimodal," constructed through speech and gesture, as well as through typography, layout and the materials employed in the making of texts.

The contributors have responded to the expanding scope of discourse analysis by asking five key questions:

• Why should we study discourse and technology and multimodal discourse analysis?
• What is the role of the World Wide Web in discourse analysis?
• How does one analyze multimodal discourse in studies of social actions and interactions?
• How does one analyze multimodal discourse in educational social interactions?
• How does one use multimodal discourse analyses in the workplace?

The vitality of these explorations opens windows onto even newer horizons of discourse and discourse analysis.

Resources of ethnography in cross-cultural technology

Lee, Mimi Miyoung (2004) "Going global": The complexities of fostering intercultural understanding in a rural school using videoconferencing technology. Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, United States -- Indiana. Retrieved January 11, 2008, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. (Publication No. AAT 3141606). >>>

Abstract (Summary)

In light of recent world affairs, many educators have recognized a need to incorporate international content, issues and perspectives into the existing curriculum, especially in racially and culturally isolated rural environments. Considering the relative disadvantage that these rural students have in terms of cross- and multi-cultural exposure, such addition to the curriculum is expected to help students grow beyond their original cultural understanding.

This is a year-long ethnographic study conducted in a rural middle school classroom where an International Studies program was introduced through interactive videoconferencing technology with the goal of fostering intercultural understanding. The methodology of Critical Ethnography (Carspecken, 1996) was used in the design of this study. Observations, interviews and document analysis were conducted. The data was analyzed to answer the following questions: (1) how does a middle school teacher in a racially homogenous rural community integrate the International Studies program into his social studies curriculum; and (2) how do the middle school students understand and interpret the encounters with people from other countries through interactive videoconferencing technology?

The key findings show that (1) the teacher and the students considered the program to be a very valuable opportunity to interact with people from other cultures; (2) the main purpose of using the program for the teacher was to motivate the students; and (3) the students had a framework of differentiating themselves in their local culture and used it to interpret the cross-cultural encounters made possible by the program. The findings suggest that the students' interpretation often resulted in measuring the differences of other cultures with the symbols of American consumerism, producing " Americanized other cultures." The study concludes that the integration of the International Studies program was received very positively by the teacher and the students but did not result in an awareness of, and challenge to, already established frameworks for understanding difference. In order to provide instruction that results in a more sophisticated level of intercultural understanding, the study suggests future implications in pedagogical, instructional and administrative issues.