Chapter 1. Introduction
- Emphasis on internationalization of curricula
- social change
- general goals (Tye, 2002): a. broadening students' horizons; b. building critical thinking skills; better preparing young people for productive lives in a nation that belongs to an increasingly interdependent world community
- Problems
- Access & opportunities (Kim, 2001)
- Individualization v. universalization (Kim, 2001)
- cultural consciousness (Banks, 1997)
- Access & opportunities (Kim, 2001)
- Midwestern State, Henderson School & International Studies for Henderson State Schools (ISHS)
- Framing the study (p. 5)
- Intercultural Education (Cushner, 1998)
- International studies (Merryfield, 2001)
- Videoconferencing technology (Cuban, 1986; Reznich, 1997; Roberts et al., 1990; Yoakam, 1995; Tiedemann, 2002 - 4 benefits of videoconferencing: a. It is direct communication with experts to enhance understanding of a subject matter; b. it heightens interest which improves motivation and retention; c. it overcomes time and distance constraints; d. it improves the spontaneity of guests)
- ISHS
- Interaction as instructional strategy (Lee & Paulus, 2001; Moore, 1993; Vygotsky, 1978 - ZPD; Bonk, Oyer & Medury, 1995 - social constructivist; Garrison, 1993, p. 16 - interaction; Gilert & Moore, 1998 - interaction)
- Intercultural Education (Cushner, 1998)
- Significance of the study
- No research to substantiate the impact of ISHS
- Rurual school's isolation
- The findings provide insight into the understanding of complexities associated with cross-cultural encounters; suggest possible implications of this type of program for educators who want to develop learning environments where the students can be empowered with a sense of intercultural competence as members of a multicultural society
- Research questions
- How does a middle school social studies teacher in a racially homogenous middle school integrate an international sutdies program into his World Geography curriculum?
- How do the middle school students understand and interpret their encounters with people from other countries through interactive videoconferencing technology?
- Definition of Ethnography (Creswell, 1998; Tedlock, 2000; Chambers, 2000)
- My stance as a critical theorist (Critical theory - Poskewitz, 1999a, p.2) - look at the program as either
- an intervention, the effectiveness of which is assessed by measuring the change in students' perception about other cultures (attitudinal change), or
- an opportunity to introduce the students to other cultures in order to see their reaction to such an opportunity (naturalistic ethnographic approach)
- Methodological implications
- ethnographic method is helpful in providing detailed info about participants & their surroundings
- Individualized interaction techniques (building rapport)
- The research design
- Outline of the study
- Phase 1: Search for possible locations using Henderson State demographic statistics and select 5 possible sites
- Phase 2: Meet w/ Mr. G and obtain his agreement for the implementation of ISHS into his curriculum
- Phase 3: Make observations and acclimate to the setting (continued until Phase 7)
- Phase 4: Begin ISHS. Conduct sutdent/teacher interviews. Begin observation and engage in preliminary analysis
- Phase 5: ISHS presenters' interviews (for causal feedback). Ongoing observation.
- Phase 6: Transcription of data and search for emerging themes. Ongoing observation.
- Phase 7: Data analysis. Ongoing observation. (themes from interviews were compared to the observation - basis for coding. Triangulation)
- Phase 8: Further interviews w/ the students (questions drawn upon based on the preliminary analysis). Ongoing observation.
- Phase 9: Analysis and write-up.
- Research site
- Selection criteria (purposive sampling): a. social studies class in rural high school; b. teacher agreement on using ISHS for entire school year; c. culturally isolated & racially homogeneous
- Instructional characteristics of the Eliot School (school vision)
- Technology use in the Eliot School
- Participants (students, teachers)
- Outline of the study
- Data collection
- Observation (regualr classes without ISHS; class during the ISHS sessions; hallways & cafeteria; school functions such as athletic events; school area & nearby towns) ; to minimize the researcher's obtrusiveness (as an Asian) by regrulating her visits to the public areas of the school so that the students would become accustomed to her presence; examples of the observation data
- Document analysis (textbook; class assignments)
- Interviews (student, teacher)
- Data anaylsis (p. 45)
- Reconstructive analysis & diglogical data generation (emerging themes; check understandings with teachers & locals)
- Coding (repeated reading of the data - preliminary analysis; topics compared across the data and grouped into emerging themes. Peer debriefing; discussion with the faculty)
- Discovering system relations (findings compared w/ larger social context - Carspecken, 1996): Hermeneutic-reconstructive anlysis emphasizes action orientations such as interpretive schemes within a culture; systems analysis emphasizes action consequences and the distribution of action conditions broadly throughout society
- The findings from the school site were compared w/ info about the neighborhood & the town (community)
- The findings were compared to the dominant discourse of the period that sutdents were exposed to from media sources and conversation w/ others outside of the school
- Possible limitations of the study
- Focus group interviews w/ the students (group form may have inhibitory effects)
- My role as researcher/participant (3-fold role - involvement in the implementation; worked as presenter; conducting the research process)
- The novelty factor of the videoconferencing technology
- Myself as an international student (Hawthorne effect)
- Focus group interviews w/ the students (group form may have inhibitory effects)
- Sections
- Discussion
- Emphasis on interaction
- "Personalized narratives
- Uses of other technologies
- Presenter's characteristics
- Other instructional interventions for intercultural awareness
- Career talk with the ISHS outreach coordinator
- Ms. Hilary's diversity program
- The teacher's personal values and views on education
- Being a coach vs. being a teacher
- Being tolerant vs. having strong moral convictions
- 'No Child Left Behind' & issues of parental responsibilities
- On instructional strategies
- Increasing student motivation
- Student-center pedagogy
- Bringing in current affairs
- "Making relevant": Integrating ISHS into the curriculum
- The future use of ISHS (p. 101)
- Discussion
- ISHS as a "live" resource
- Understanding Mr. Gordon's identity
- Students' interpretation of the "other": Constructing difference in school (Identity - Mead, 1934; Habermas, 1981; Kanpol & McLauren, 1995, Hall, 1996; Taylor, 1994; Schutz, 1970; Sleeter & Grant, 1991; Hall & du Gay, 1996)
- Groups & labels (social class variations - Brantlinger, 1993) - being popular
- Homosexuality (Allport, 1979, p. 87 - well-deserved reputation theory)
- "Being popular": Power & legitimacy (Allport, 1979; Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)
- Racism
- Difference & the ISHS videoconferencing programs (Self-Other relations - Fine, 1994)
- Interest in the exotic (Ashcroft et al., 2000, p. 94)
- Americanized cultural forms & U.S.-centrism
- "Coming from a real person": Authenticity & group essentialism
- Differentiating vs. "othering"
- Discussion
- Popularity & racism: The discourse of exclusion (Sarup, 1996, p. 59)
- Making sense of the difference (Cushner, 2003 - difference as diviation generates the sense of fear)
- Oversimplification of other cultures
- Possible reasons for the interpretation (p. 139)
- Culture-specific approach to understanding other cultures (Cushner, 2003, p. 42)
- Emphasis on ethnicism or "national character" (internally homogenous - Brah, 1997, p. 129)
- View of culture as static (Kanpol & McLaren, 1995)
- Tentative conclusion
- Positive response to ISHS
- resulted in interpretations of culture emphasizing the exotic in some cases and in the search for Americanization in others
- didn't result in an awareness of, or challenge to, an already established framework for understanding differences
- Future implications
- Providing a support system for the teacher
- understanding how differnce is constructed
- community of practice for social studies teachers (Wenger, 1998)
- Implications for instructional design issues (Merryfield, 2001)
- continuous implementation of ISHS
- collaborative problem solving approach
- teaching tolerance: providing instructional resources
- collaboration between rural schools and universities
- providing a panel of speakers
- Administrative support for the ISHS program from the university
- creating more tangible incentive for the presenters
- creating additional partnership
- For further research
- further conceptualization of differences for particular contexts and learners
- issues on curriculum design in social studies
- teacher education for social studies
- politics of international education
- Providing a support system for the teacher
Appendix
- Sample interview protocol for students
- Sample interview protocol for teacher
- Pre-survey questions for students
- Reflection of the session (students)
- Summary of events
- Sample of preliminary analysis
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